There's been concern over the last few years (and we finally started paying attention to the fact) that some of the AEDs can cause fairly significant interference with cognitive function. This sort of cropped up as we started getting a hold of these newer medicines that had actually less effect on cognitive function, and we began to notice this.
But in terms of thinking of the cognitive effects of these drugs, one of the things that's very important to do is to separate sedation from the cognitive effects. It's not necessarily easy, but there is a difference between medicines that make people sleepy and medicines that actually interfere with the ability to process information and to think clearly. On a simplistic level, one of the ways of thinking about it is that for many patients, hopefully most, sedation is an effect people become tolerant to over a period of time. Now, that isn't always the case, but one hopes that after a period of time, patients will be less sleepy from their medicine.
But even given that, some patients will continue to experience persistent disturbances with their thinking. It's also difficult to assess and to evaluate some of the literature that's out there, because measurement of cognitive effects is a very complex process. Some of the older literature that looked at this, when we've gone back and evaluated it very carefully, we realize that what was being measured was really more motor reaction speed rather than cognitive function, and we've had to rethink some of our conclusions about cognitive effects of the drugs on that basis.
It's also very important that when we compare these medicines, we're comparing reasonable nontoxic doses of the medicines. There was a classic case of a comparison of carbamazepine and phenytoin's cognitive effects, and it came out looking like one of the drugs was worse than the other; it turned out that with the drug that looked worse, if I remember correctly I believe it was phenytoin, actually the majority of patients who were assessed with cognitive disturbances were on higher doses with higher blood levels and actually were closer to being intoxicated on medicine. So, making sure we're comparing apples to apples is very important. Next slide, please.
Thinking about just sedation for a minute, this is an attempt to just try to line up our AEDs in terms of their sedative properties, and I think many people would agree with this particular categorization. I'm sure there are some people who wouldn't agree with some of the choices in terms of the pigeonholes that we've put them in, but clearly, some of our older AEDs are quite sedating -- things like phenobarbital, phenytoin, and even carbamazepine, as well as some of our newer medicines, like topiramate. And then we get down to some of our newer medicines that actually aren't very sedating at all. Again, with gabapentin, many patients do get very sedated on that initially, but there seems to be a fair amount of tolerance that develops with gabapentin. Pregabalin has probably the same sort of effect, and lamotrigine of course is not tremendously sedating at all. If we can then, we can go to the next slide.
Thinking about actual cognitive effects of these medicines separate as much as possible from their sedative effects, we can start thinking about a couple of things. One of them is that epilepsy itself may influence cognitive function, depending on the type of seizures a person has, or what the etiology of the seizure disorder is. For example, with traumatic brain injury or stroke, there may be effects of the underlying cause of the seizure disorder on cognitive function.
In terms of our AEDs, it's also kind of important to remember that these medicines exist to tone down or dampen the function of neurons and synapses, and on that basis, we need to anticipate that almost any of these medicines if they're given in high-enough doses, or in combinations, certainly can impair cognitive function. So, it's probably part of what we're working with with these medicines.
A great deal of attention, mentioned a few minutes ago, has been paid over the years to comparing especially the older antiepileptic drugs with each other. There's been a lot of anecdotal information and some very nicely done studies; and if we put all this together, trying to differentiate cognitive effects of things like carbamazepine and phenytoin, it's very difficult to make firm conclusions. On average, the differences between these medicines at clinically useful doses that are not toxic is probably small, on average. That doesn't mean that we don't want to pay attention to individual patients and how they respond to medicines.
Certainly, if we take a good hard look, the best evidence out there says that long-term effects of benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and probably topiramate, one of our newer antiepileptic drugs, the long-term effects of these drugs can be significant on cognitive function. Some of our newer AEDs have been evaluated carefully. If we can go to the next slide, please.
This is just a summary of a couple of studies that were done looking specifically at, in one case, a comparison of gabapentin, lamotrigine, and topiramate. This was in a small group of healthy young adults, so it certainly isn't the most definitive thing out there, but we were looking at clinically useful, clinically appropriate doses of these medicines, and when these people were compared, the cognitive effects of lamotrigine and gabapentin were certainly less than were seen with topiramate.
Topiramate is fairly well established in having some significant ability to interfere with cognition. And the bottom bullet on that slide is just a synopsis of a second study where gabapentin, lamotrigine, and levetiracetam were compared; in that particular study, both comparing them against carbamazepine and comparing the patients against their own baseline, all 3 of those medicines had no discernable negative cognitive impact.
So, it looks as though some of our newer AEDs may have some advantage for us in terms of the potential for causing less cognitive disturbance.