Ethnobotanicals ANTHROPOLOGY

[mr peabody]

Chavin de Huantar

Chavin de Huantar is an ancient temple located in a remote mountain valley in Peru, where priests with seemingly magical powers presided long before the births of Christ or Confucius. The temple lies about 160 miles north of Lima. Discovered in the late 1800s, it is a temple complex built by one of the oldest known civilizations in South America, the Chavin. Occupation at Chavin de Huantar has been carbon dated to at least 3000 BC, with ceremonial center activity occurring primarily toward the end of the second millennium, and through the middle of the first millennium BC. The earliest evidence of the ceremonial use of San Pedro (huachuma) is a stone carving of a huachumero (huachuma shaman) at Chavin de Huantar.

The location of Chavin helped make it a special place—the temple was an important pilgrimage site that drew people and their offerings from far and wide. At 10,330 feet in elevation, it sits between the eastern (Cordillera Negra—snowless) and western (Cordillera Blanca—snowy) ranges of the Andes, near two of the few mountain passes that allow passage between the desert coast to the west and the Amazon jungle to the east. It is located near the confluence of the Huachesca and Mosna Rivers, a natural phenomenon of two joining into one that may have been seen as a spiritually powerful phenomenon. The main site, Chavin de Huantar, is characterized by huge raised platforms formed from massive blocks of dressed stone.

The temple complex that stands today is comprised of two buildings: the U-shaped Old Temple, built around 900 B.C.E., and the New Temple (built approximately 500 B.C.E.), which expanded the Old Temple and added a rectangular sunken court. The majority of the structures used roughly-shaped stones in many sizes to compose walls and floors. Finer smoothed stone was used for carved elements. From its first construction, the interior of the temple was riddled with a multitude of tunnels, called galleries. While some of the maze-like galleries are connected with each other, others are separate. The galleries all exist in darkness—there are no windows in them, although there are many smaller tunnels that allow air to pass throughout the structure.​

The village with which the Chavin site shares its name is home to about 1,000 people, mostly farmers. A single paved street runs through the middle. Horses and donkeys are frequently tethered on the main drag, and pigs shuffle about on the dirt side streets. The town abuts the site of the ruins, which attract slow but steady tourist traffic. Middle-aged women and young girls sell soft drinks and snacks outside the main gate.

A short walk over a small hill brings you within sight of the ruins—though there isn’t a lot to see at first glance. In the distance is the grassy Square Plaza. Closer to the entrance are the seven massive mounds that have been found at Chavin, including old and newer temple arrangements built over a span of 500 to 1,000 years. Impressive, crumbling walls are visible, along with what’s left of a staircase that led up to what was originally a four-story-high structure. Beneath the temples lies a labyrinth of dim, narrow and exotically named passageways—Gallery of the Madman, Gallery of the Bats, Gallery of the Offerings.​

The god for whom the temple was constructed is represented in the Lanzon (below) - a notched wedge-shaped stone over 15 feet tall, carved with the image of a supernatural being, and located deep within the Old Temple, intersecting several galleries. Lanzon means “great spear” in Spanish, but a better comparison would be the shape of the digging stick used in traditional highland agriculture. That shape would seem to indicate that the deity’s power was ensuring successful planting and harvest.​

The Lanzon

The Lanzon depicts a standing figure with bared teeth and protruding fangs. The figure’s left hand rests pointing down, while the right is raised upward, encompassing heaven and earth. The hands have long, talon-like fingernails. The Lanzon deity is a mixture of human and animal features. The fangs and talons indicate associations with the jaguar and the caiman. The eyebrows and hair are rendered as snakes.

The ritual would have begun with the ingestion of the psychedelic cactus, San Pedro. As subjects felt their way through the dark, cramped tunnels, conch horns echoed around them from some unseen source. Water roared through canals beneath their feet (and, strangely, overhead). Mirrors placed in ventilation ducts to reflect the sun poured brilliant shafts of light into the subterranean hallways, only to be “turned off,” thrusting the occupant into total darkness. By the time initiates emerged from the chambers, their perspective would have been altered forever.​

 

[mr peabody]

Mystery and Myth

Last chapter of Hofmann's book LSD - My Problem Child

The notion of reality as the self juxtaposed to the world, in confrontation with the outer world, began to form itself, as reported in the citation from Benn, in the southern portion of the European continent in Greek antiquity. No doubt people at that time knew the suffering that was connected with such a cleft reality consciousness. The Greek genius tried the cure, by supplementing the multiformed and richly colored, sensual as well as deeply sorrowful Apollonian world view created by the subject/object cleavage, with the Dionysian world of experience, in which this cleavage is abolished in ecstatic inebriation. Nietzsche writes in The Birth of Tragedy:

It is either through the influence of narcotic potions, of which all primitive peoples and races speak in hymns, or through the powerful approach of spring, penetrating with joy all of nature, that those Dionysian stirrings arise, which in their intensification lead the individual to forget himself completely.... Not only does the bond between man and man come to be forged once again by the magic of the Dionysian rite, but alienated, hostile, or subjugated nature again celebrates her reconciliation with her prodigal son, man.

The Mysteries of Eleusis, which were celebrated annually in the fall, over an interval of approximately 2,000 years, from about 1500 B.C. until the fourth century A.D., were intimately connected with the ceremonies and festivals in honor of the god Dionysus. These Mysteries were established by the goddess of agriculture, Demeter, as thanks for the recovery of her daughter Persephone, whom Hades, the god of the underworld, had abducted. A further thank offering was the ear of grain, which was presented by the two goddesses to Triptolemus, the first high priest of Eleusis. They taught him the cultivation of grain, which Triptolemus then disseminated over the whole globe. Persephone, however, was not always allowed to remain with her mother, because she had taken nourishment from Hades, contrary to the order of the highest gods. As punishment she had to return to the underworld for a part of the year. During this time, it was winter on the earth, the plants died and were withdrawn into the ground, to awaken to new life early in the year with Persephone's journey to earth.

The myth of Demeter, Persephone, Hades, and the other gods, which was enacted as a drama, formed, however, only the external framework of events. The climax of the yearly ceremonies, which began with a procession from Athens to Eleusis lasting several days, was the concluding ceremony with the initiation, which took place in the night. The initiates were forbidden by penalty of death to divulge what they had learned, beheld, in the innermost, holiest chamber of the temple, the telesterion (goal). Not one of the multitude that were initiated into the secret of Eleusis has ever done this. Pausanias, Plato, many Roman emperors like Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, and many other known personages of antiquity were party to this initiation. It must have been an illumination, a visionary glimpse of a deeper reality, an insight into the true basis of the universe. That can be concluded from the statements of initiates about the value, about the importance of the vision. Thus it is reported in a Homeric Hymn: "Blissful is he among men on Earth, who has beheld that! He who has not been initiated into the holy Mysteries, who has had no part therein, remains a corpse in gloomy darkness." Pindar speaks of the Eleusinian benediction with the following words: "Blissful is he, who after having beheld this enters on the way beneath the Earth. He knows the end of life as well as its divinely granted beginning." Cicero, also a famous initiate, likewise put in first position the splendor that fell upon his life from Eleusis, when he said: "Not only have we received the reason there, that we may live in joy, but also, besides, that we may die with better hope."

How could the mythological representation of such an obvious occurrence, which runs its course annually before our eyes—the seed grain that is dropped into the earth, dies there, in order to allow a new plant, new life, to ascend into the light—prove to be such a deep, comforting experience as that attested by the cited reports? It is traditional knowledge that the initiates were furnished with a potion, the kykeon, for the final ceremony. It is also known that barley extract and mint were ingredients of the kykeon. Religious scholars and scholars of mythology, like Karl Kerenyi, from whose book on the Eleusinian Mysteries the preceding statements were taken, and with whom I was associated in relation to the research on this mysterious potion [In the English publication of Kerenyi's book Eleusis a reference is made to this collaboration] are of the opinion that the kykeon was mixed with an hallucinogenic drug. [In The Road to Eleusis by R. Gordon Wasson, Albert Hofmann, and Carl A. P. Ruck the possibility is discussed that the kykeon could have acted through an LSD-like preparation of ergot.] That would make understandable the ecstatic-visionary experience of the DemeterPersephone myth, as a symbol of the cycle of life and death in both a comprehensive and timeless reality.

When the Gothic king Alarich, coming from the north, invaded Greece in 396 A.D. and destroyed the sanctuary of Eleusis, it was not only the end of a religious center, but it also signified the decisive downfall of the ancient world. With the monks that accompanied Alarich, Christianity penetrated into the country that must be regarded as the cradle of European culture.

The cultural-historical meaning of the Eleusinian Mysteries, their influence on European intellectual history, can scarcely be overestimated. Here suffering humankind found a cure for its rational, objective, cleft intellect, in a mystical totality experience, that let it believe in immortality, in an everlasting existence.

This belief had survived in early Christianity, although with other symbols. It is found as a promise, even in particular passages of the Gospels, most clearly in the Gospel according to John, as in Chapter 14: 120. Jesus speaks to his disciples, as he takes leave of them:

And I will pray to the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter, that he may abide with you forever;

Even the Spirit of truth; whom the world cannot receive, because it seeth him not, neither knoweth him: but ye know him; for he dwelleth with you, and shall be in you.

I will not leave you comfortless: I will come to you. Yet a little while, and the world seeth me no more; but ye see me: because I live, ye shall live also.

At that day ye shalt know that I am in my Father, and ye in me, and I in you.

This promise constitutes the heart of my Christian beliefs and my call to natural-scientific research: we will attain to knowledge of the universe through the spirit of truth, and thereby to understanding of our being one with the deepest, most comprehensive reality, God.

Ecclesiastical Christianity, determined by the duality of creator and creation, has, however, with its nature-alienated religiosity largely obliterated the Eleusinian-Dionysian legacy of antiquity. In the Christian sphere of belief, only special blessed men have attested to a timeless, comforting reality, experienced in a spontaneous vision, an experience to which in antiquity the elite of innumerable generations had access through the initiation at Eleusis. The unio mystica of Catholic saints and the visions that the representatives of Christian mysticism—Jakob Boehme, Meister Eckhart, Angelus Silesius, Thomas Traherne, William Blake, and others—describe in their writings, are obviously essentially related to the enlightenment that the initiates to the Eleusinian Mysteries experienced.

The fundamental importance of a mystical experience, for the recovery of people in Western industrial societies who are sickened by a one-sided, rational, materialistic world view, is today given primary emphasis, not only by adherents to Eastern religious movements like Zen Buddhism, but also by leading representatives of academic psychiatry. Of the appropriate literature, we will here refer only to the books of Balthasar Staehelin, the Basel psychiatrist working in Zurich. [Haben und Sein (1969), Die Welt als Du (1970), Urvertrauen und zweite Wirklichkeit (1973), and Der flnale Mensch (1976); all published by Theologischer Verlag, Zurich.] They make reference to numerous other authors who deal with the same problem. Today a type of "metamedicine," "metapsychology," and "metapsychiatry" is beginning to call upon the metaphysical element in people, which manifests itself as an experience of a deeper, duality-surmounting reality, and to make this element a basic healing principle in therapeutic practice.

In addition, it is most significant that not only medicine but also wider circles of our society consider the overcoming of the dualistic, cleft world view to be a prerequisite and basis for the recovery and spiritual renewal of occidental civilization and culture. This renewal could lead to the renunciation of the materialistic philosophy of life and the development of a new reality consciousness.

As a path to the perception of a deeper, comprehensive reality, in which the experiencing individual is also sheltered, meditation, in its different forms, occupies a prominent place today. The essential difference between meditation and prayer in the usual sense, which is based upon the duality of creator creation, is that meditation aspires to the abolishment of the I-you-barrier by a fusing of object and subject, of sender and
receiver, of objective reality and self.

Objective reality, the world view produced by the spirit of scientific inquiry, is the myth of our time. It has replaced the ecclesiastical-Christian and mythical-Apollonian world view.

But this ever broadening factual knowledge, which constitutes objective reality, need not be a desecration. On the contrary, if it only advances deep enough, it inevitably leads to the inexplicable, primal ground of the universe: the wonder, the mystery of the divine—in the microcosm of the atom, in the macrocosm of the spiral nebula; in the seeds of plants, in the body and soul of people.

Meditation begins at the limits of objective reality, at the farthest point yet reached by rational knowledge and perception. Meditation thus does not mean rejection of objective reality; on the contrary, it consists of a penetration to deeper dimensions of reality. It is not escape into an imaginary dream world; rather it seeks after the comprehensive truth of objective reality, by simultaneous, stereoscopic contemplation of its surfaces and depths.

It could become of fundamental importance, and be not merely a transient fashion of the present, if more and more people today would make a daily habit of devoting an hour, or at least a few minutes, to meditation. As a result of the meditative penetration and broadening of the natural-scientific world view, a new, deepened reality consciousness would have to evolve, which would increasingly become the property of all humankind. This could become the basis of a new religiosity, which would not be based on belief in the dogmas of various religions, but rather on perception through the "spirit of truth." What is meant here is a perception, a reading and understanding of the text at first hand, "out of the book that God's finger has written" (Paracelsus), out of the creation.

The transformation of the objective world view into a deepened and thereby religious reality consciousness can be accomplished gradually, by continuing practice of meditation. It can also come about, however, as a sudden enlightenment; a visionary experience. It is then particularly profound, blessed, and meaningful. Such a mystical experience may nevertheless "not be induced even by decade-long meditation," as Balthasar Staehelin writes. Also, it does not happen to everyone, although the capacity for mystical experience belongs to the essence of human spirituality.

Nevertheless, at Eleusis, the mystical vision, the healing, comforting experience, could be arranged in the prescribed place at the appointed time, for all of the multitudes who were initiated into the holy Mysteries. This could be accounted for by the fact that an hallucinogenic drug came into use; this, as already mentioned, is something that religious scholars believe.

The characteristic property of hallucinogens, to suspend the boundaries between the experiencing self and the outer world in an ecstatic, emotional experience, makes it possible with their help, and after suitable internal and external preparation, as it was accomplished in a perfect way at Eleusis, to evoke a mystical experience according to plan, so to speak.

Meditation is a preparation for the same goal that was aspired to and was attained in the Eleusinian Mysteries. Accordingly it seems feasible that in the future, with the help of LSD, the mystical vision, crowning meditation, could be made accessible to an increasing number of practitioners of meditation.

I see the true importance of LSD in the possibility of providing material aid to meditation aimed at the mystical experience of a deeper, comprehensive reality. Such a use accords entirely with the essence and working character of LSD as a sacred drug.​

https://ia801200.us.archive.org/20/items/LSDMyProblemChildByDr.AlbertHoffman/LSD%20-%20My%20Problem%20Child%20by%20Dr.%20Albert%20Hoffman.pdf

 

[mr peabody]

Ancient Peoples & Psychoactive Plants

University of Victoria

Like modern humans, early humans had a range of built-in desires—a desire to live in groups, a desire for fun or relief from daily struggles, and a desire to understand and prosper in the afterlife. Early humans also had similar physical traits and body systems. The human body, in ancient times and today, is designed to ensure we satisfy our basic needs—sleep, water, food, sex—so we can both stay alive and welcome new humans into the world. Our brains and bodies release chemicals that make us feel good when we rest, eat a meal and so on in order to motivate us to continue wanting to meet our basic needs. Our natural environment—the earth—seems to be designed to help humans (and other living beings) survive. After all, the world is full of plants that contain nutrients our bodies require to live healthful lives (think raw fruits and vegetables). The earth is also full of plants that contain psychoactive drugs that can help us both heal from disease or injury and enhance the release of feel-good chemicals in our bodies. That said, psychoactive drugs—if used too much or too often or in other risky ways—can also lead to health, relationship, money and other problems. Many native plants, such as the cacao tree (think chocolate bar or hot cocoa), contain both nutrients and psychoactive substances. And some plants are multi-purpose. Hemp, for example, is nutritional, medicinal and can be used to make industrial items such as cloth and rope.

Our early ancestors had complex relationships with psychoactive plants. People roamed the earth in small groups of hunters and gatherers. Typically, the women were responsible for foraging the forests and fields for plant foods—nuts, seeds, fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, and so on—and using them to prepare meals. Over time, they learned to identify which plants could be used as food, which ones were medicine, and which ones were harmful or even fatal. Some of the most helpful plants were also the most risky to use.

People like to label plants as poisonous or medicinal (or simply “dangerous,” as in the case of plants that produce a “high” feeling). But we have known for centuries that our labels often refer to the amount of the plant we use. As Swiss physician and botanist Paracelsus wrote in the 1500’s: “Poison is in everything, and no thing is without poison. The dosage makes it either a poison or a remedy.”

Early humans also learned—in a process sometimes leading to injury or death—that many plants, used in specific ways and in certain amounts, could help them reach altered states of consciousness or explore the spirit world. Many of these psychoactive plants were woven into early healing practices, cultural and religious rituals, and daily routines to bring temporary but necessary bursts of peace or joy.

Early South America

The Incas of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador cultivated coca, a hardy, mountain plant that needed no irrigation. It also resisted both drought and disease, and could be harvested three times a year. The Incas and others chewed the coca leaves with a lime paste. The combination released psychoactive chemicals that relieved hunger, thirst and fatigue. One anthropologist who has worked among coca growers in Bolivia said coca chewing was similar in effect to drinking a strong cup of coffee.By the time the Spanish invaded in the 1500’s CE, coca was deemed sacred and was used in various rituals. When the Spanish conquers learned that coca could increase a person’s work capacity, they made their Incan slaves use it while mining gold for their captors.

The people of the Inca Empire did not have the wheel. Yet they maintained a complex network of paved roads and rest areas to transport trade goods, slaves, messages and warriors from place to place. Instead of using carts to move products and people around the empire, the Inca traveled on foot, shipping plant foods and medicines, among other prized items, on the backs of llamas and human porters.

Mesopotamia

In ancient times, the fertile land along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was ideal for growing a variety of fruits and grains, including barley, dates, grapes, figs and sesame seeds. And the rivers themselves served as watery “highways” for trade of these and other items between river towns and cities.

Alcohol was one of the many products both made and traded in ancient Mesopotamia. More than 5000 years ago, people who lived there were drinking date wine and barley beer. But it was not like the beer we have today. It contained cereal grains and other debris, so people used drinking straws as a kind of filter.

Among the earliest written documents ever found are Sumerian wage lists and tax receipts from 3400 BCE. The symbol for beer—a vessel with diagonal line drawn inside it—is one of the most common words (along with symbols for grain, textiles and livestock). These items were collected by priests of cities and used to pay for communal projects, such as building irrigation systems and public buildings. Wine use in the lowland areas of Mesopotamia was limited at first. Wine had to be imported from the mountainous grape-growing lands, which made it more expensive to buy than beer. Seen as an exotic foreign drink, wine was mainly used for religious reasons. Only the elite could afford to buy it. Only royalty could afford to share it. At a royal feast in 870 BCE, Assyria’s King Ashurnasirpal II is said to have sipped wine from a gold bowl and served 10,000 skins of wine and 10,000 jars of beer to his guests.

Another medicine recognized for its effectiveness was the opium plant. Early Egyptian medical texts list opium as a sedative used to alleviate pain, abscesses and scalp complaints. Opium was also used as a means of inducing altered states of consciousness (experiencing the world in a new and very different way).

Opium grows naturally in temperate and sub-tropical regions, and there is evidence to suggest it was first domesticated by west Mediterranean people as early as 6000 BCE. Some scientists claim opium is one of the most important medical plant discoveries on earth. After all, it is used to make morphine and many medications for hospitals and pharmacies. Other people, though, focus on the fact that opium is used to make heroin, a drug which many governments believe carries the highest risk of harm. Today most of the world’s opium is grown in Afghanistan, or the northeastern part of the Indus Valley of ancient times.

Other psychoactive plants in Africa

Two species of cola tree grow naturally in the ancient forests of West Africa. Cola nuts contain caffeine and other stimulants. Cola is one of the only psychoactive substances Muslims can enjoy. (Muslims do not believe in using alcohol and other intoxicants that have the potential to negatively affect the way a person acts or makes decisions.)Ancient Africans all across the continent used a variety of other psychoactive plants too, including hemp (also known as cannabis or marijuana, the Mexican slang word for hemp). Some researchers believe the habit of smoking cannabis for its euphoric and mind-altering qualities was introduced to the western world by African tribespeople.

Many other ancient societies in Asia and Africa also used hemp for a range of reasons. Most strains of hemp contain very little THC (the short way of saying the chemical that produces euphoria and hallucinations) and were used for fibre to make nets and clothing or seed oil for cooking. But at least some ancient Asians and Africans used the hemp plants with some THC for relief from the everyday world, perhaps like the way so many people today drink alcohol to relax.Most researchers agree that the hemp plant itself originated in Scythia (today’s Kazakhstan and surrounding areas). As nomadic pastoralists, the Scythians helped bring cannabis to the places in the east and west where they had influence, such as early Greece and eastern Europe. The Scythians used their horses to transport psychoactive plants and other goods from rest station to rest station over the Pontic Steppes, the great expanse of grasslands that lay between Asia and Europe. The Scythians are believed to have been roaming the steppes as early as 3000 BCE.

Many other ancient societies in Asia and Africa also used hemp for a range of reasons. Most strains of hemp contain very little THC (the short way of saying the chemical that produces euphoria and hallucinations) and were used for fibre to make nets and clothing or seed oil for cooking. But at least some ancient Asians and Africans used the hemp plants with some THC for relief from the everyday world, perhaps like the way so many people today drink alcohol to relax.Most researchers agree that the hemp plant itself originated in Scythia (today’s Kazakhstan and surrounding areas). As nomadic pastoralists, the Scythians helped bring cannabis to the places in the east and west where they had influence, such as early Greece and eastern Europe. The Scythians used their horses to transport psychoactive plants and other goods from rest station to rest station over the Pontic Steppes, the great expanse of grasslands that lay between Asia and Europe. While the Scythians are believed to have been roaming the steppes as early as 3000 BCE, they are most often referred to in the context of trade along the Silk Road, which emerged in a meaningful way during China’s Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE). Silk Road or Hemp Web?During the Han Dynasty, people, products and ideas trickled and flowed 11,000 kilometres through a web of roads linking China, Persia and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. This web was recently coined the Silk Road, because silk was a main export from China. But it could have just as easily been called Hemp Web. Hemp- based materials and items were key exports from China. Hemp fibre was used to makerope, cloth and shoes. In 100 BCE, the Chinese began using hemp to make paper money.

Greece

For many people in ancient Greece, daily life involved transporting, trading, making or using alcohol. Wine was one of ancient Greece’s main exports. For this reason vineyards were prime targets during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta. In 424 BCE, Spartan troops arrived in the wine-producing city of Acanthus just before harvest time. Their threat to destroy the harvest led the Acanthians to change allegiances so the harvest would not be affected. By 5 BCE, Greek wine was exported by sea as far away as southern France to the west, Egypt to the south, the Crimean Peninsula to the east, and the Danube to the north.

Alcohol was also consumed by Greeks themselves. For example, at special gatherings called symposia, men met to drink and talk. But there were rules. Knowing that alcohol could bring out anti-social behaviours, the symposiarch (or king of the party) would monitor the participants to make sure they did not drink too much. Young men learned how to enjoy the night without losing themselves in human extremes—anger, love, pride, ignorance, greed and cowardice. In a book called Laws, Greek philosopher Plato argued that drinking with someone at a symposium was the simplest, fastest and most reliable test of someone’s character. Other philosophers focused on the way wine uncovered philosophical truths. Eratosthenes (3rd century BCE), for example, said “Wine reveals what is hidden.” The ancient Greeks typically drank wine mixed with water, served in large urn-shaped bowls called kraters. To further weaken the effects of wine and avoid getting drunk, they ate food before or while drinking. Still, some people drank heavily, and in some cases it claimed their lives. Reports of a drinking contest in 3 BCE revealed that 41 contestants died of alcohol poisoning. The winner took home prizes, including more wine, but he lived only four more days.

This passage from a play written by Eubulus in the fourth century BCE sums up the good, bad and ugly sides of ancient alcohol use: “For sensible men I prepare only three kraters: one for health, which they drink first, the second for love and pleasure, and the third for sleep. After the third one is drained, wise men go home. The fourth krater is not mine anymore. It belongs to bad behaviour; the fifth is for shouting; the sixth is for rudeness and insults; the seventh is for fights; the eighth is for breaking the furniture; the ninth is for depression; the tenth is for madness and unconsciousness.”

Reflecting on the past

For thousands of years, humans have been cultivating, trading and using a variety of plants in specific ways and in certain amounts for nutrition and medicine, for facing everyday human challenges, and for help in connecting with the spirit world. And for an equal length of time, human individuals and societies have suffered from negative consequences of psychoactive plant use.Today we cultivate, trade and use many of the same substances (often in man-made form) for many of the same reasons and sometimes at great cost to our health, relationships, and work performances.

https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cisur/assets/docs/iminds-ancient-peoples.pdf ​